Understanding the Second Fitna: A Turning Point in Islamic History
The Second Fitna (680–692) was a period of civil war and political instability in the early Islamic world, following the death of the first caliph of the Umayyad dynasty, Muawiyah I. It began with a dispute over the caliphate between Muawiyah's son, Yazid I, and several factions, including the supporters of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of Prophet Muhammad, and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. Key events include the Battle of Karbala in 680, where Husayn was martyred, and the siege of Mecca. The conflict ultimately ended with the consolidation of Umayyad power under Caliph Abd al-Malik in 692, reshaping Islamic governance and further deepening the Sunni-Shia divide.